Get 200 credits monthly that roll over!

Abdus Salam’s Legacy in Elevating Science in Developing Countries

Research Question: how Abdus Salam's achievements influenced the promotion of science in developing countries?

This is the original, unedited work by Riki. Enjoy!

Abstract:

This essay explores the significant impacts of Abdus Salam’s accomplishments as a theoretical physicist on the advancement of science in developing countries. Focusing on the research question of how Salam’s achievements catalyzed the promotion of scientific understanding and infrastructure in less privileged regions, the essay aims to dissect various dimensions of his legacy, including the establishment of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), as well as his advocacy for science education. The discussion elucidates key aspects such as the electroweak theory and Salam’s role in fostering global scientific collaboration, along with the critical need for science promotion in developing regions. The main conclusions reflect that Salam’s contributions not only advanced theoretical physics but also laid a foundational framework for inspiring future generations of scientists from underrepresented backgrounds. His relentless pursuit of bridging the gap between developed and developing nations highlights the profound interplay between scientific discovery and socio-economic progress, serving as a beacon for future efforts in global science advocacy. 

Keywords: Abdus Salam, science promotion, developing countries, ICTP, electroweak theory, global collaboration

 1.1 Contextualizing Abdus Salam’s Contributions to Global Science and Theoretical Physics

Abdus Salam, a Pakistani theoretical physicist and a Nobel laureate, stands as one of the most esteemed figures in the field of theoretical physics, particularly noted for his contributions to the development of the electroweak theory. His work has had not only profound scientific implications but also far-reaching effects on the promotion of science in developing nations. To better understand Salam’s impact, it is essential to examine his career within the broader historical and scientific context.

Salam’s journey into the realm of theoretical physics began in an era when scientific endeavors were predominantly concentrated in the West. Born in 1926 in Jhang, Punjab, now Pakistan, his early fascination with mathematics and physics led him to achieve remarkable academic success. He earned his Bachelor’s degree from Government College University, Lahore, and subsequently, a doctorate from the University of Cambridge. Salam’s early career was significantly influenced by the scientific milieu at Cambridge, where he studied under prominent physicists and developed a deep interest in quantum field theory and particle physics.

The seminal moment in Abdus Salam’s career came with his co-development of the electroweak theory alongside Steven Weinberg and Sheldon Glashow. This theory, which garnered them the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979, unified the weak nuclear force and electromagnetic force into a single framework, fundamentally altering our understanding of particle physics. Although Salam and Weinberg’s initial papers on the subject went largely unnoticed at the time, the eventual recognition of their work established them as pioneering figures in modern physics (Borrelli, 2018). This unification model was grounded in the concept of non-Abelian gauge fields, which had been proposed earlier by Yang and Mills in 1954. Building on this foundation, the discovery of the Higgs mechanism in the 1960s made it possible to explain the masses of gauge bosons, completing the electroweak model (Vizgin, 2024).

The implications of Salam’s work were monumental. By bridging the gap between the weak nuclear force and electromagnetic force, the electroweak theory provided a more coherent understanding of subatomic particles and their interactions. This consequently played an essential role in the formulation of the Standard Model of particle physics, which serves as the cornerstone of modern theoretical physics. The Standard Model outlines the interactions between elementary particles mediated by fundamental forces, including the coupling of intermediate vector bosons (\(W^\pm\) and \(Z\)) and the Higgs particle with fermions (Altarelli & Forte, 2020).

In addition to his theoretical achievements, Salam was a fervent advocate for science education and research in developing countries. He understood that scientific advancement was a crucial determinant of socio-economic development. His efforts were not merely academic but also involved practical measures to foster a scientific culture in nations that lacked the infrastructure and resources for advanced research. Through various initiatives, Salam sought to mitigate the disparities in scientific knowledge between developed and developing countries.

Salam’s contributions also extended beyond physics to the broader philosophical and metaphysical principles governing scientific inquiry. Drawing inspiration from classical works such as Isaac Newton’s “Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica” (Newton, 1687), Salam emphasized the importance of symmetry and mathematical precision in theoretical physics. Newton’s work had laid the groundwork for classical mechanics and gravitation, concepts which Salam believed were vital in understanding the natural world through a unified lens. This philosophical perspective underpinned much of Salam’s scientific work, driving his search for unified theories and contributing to his broader vision of global scientific progress.

In summary, Abdus Salam’s contributions to theoretical physics, exemplified by the electroweak theory, not only advanced the field but also served as a catalyst for promoting scientific education and research in developing nations. His legacy is reflected in the numerous scientists from these countries who have benefitted from initiatives inspired by his vision. Salam’s work continues to inspire efforts towards bridging the scientific divide, underscoring the crucial role of theoretical physics in understanding the fundamental principles of nature and its potential to drive global development.

1.2 Significance of Studying Science Promotion in Developing Nations: Case Studies and Impact Metrics

The study of science promotion in developing nations is not just an academic exercise but a vital area of inquiry with far-reaching socio-economic implications. Science and technology serve as crucial catalysts for development, playing a pivotal role in driving innovation, improving healthcare, and optimizing agricultural yields, among other benefits (Markscheffel & Schröter, 2021). Abdus Salam’s contributions to science promotion in developing countries are particularly noteworthy. His work highlights the transformative power of science and sets a precedent for efforts to bridge the knowledge gap between developed and developing nations. This subchapter will address the importance of science promotion by examining case studies and the impact metrics used to evaluate scientific advancement.

One of the fundamental reasons for promoting scientific research and education in developing countries is its potential to drive socio-economic development. According to Petrisor and Ilovan (2023), interdisciplinary approaches that integrate scientific principles are crucial for sustainable development. They argue that fields like urban ecology and humanistic geography, while often overlooked in traditional scientific hierarchies, play a significant role in planning sustainable local communities. These disciplines, despite their societal relevance, have been historically disadvantaged by funding programs that prioritize scientific progress and economic growth over societal impact. The case of Romania’s new strategy for research, which aims to correct these imbalances, underscores the importance of supportive policies in promoting science that directly benefits society. This policy pivot aims to assist in the development of underrepresented research areas, thereby creating a more comprehensive and inclusive scientific community that can tackle issues pertinent to sustainable development.

Another key aspect of studying science promotion in developing nations involves understanding the tools and methodologies used to map scientific progress. Markscheffel and Schröter (2021) provide an insightful comparison of two popular science mapping tools – CiteSpace and VOSviewer. These tools are instrumental in understanding the cognitive structure and development of scientific research. Through bibliometric analyses such as co-occurrence, co-citation, and co-authorship, these tools help visualize the network of scientific activities. While both tools share many functionalities, they differ in their approach to normalization, mapping, and clustering. VOSviewer, for instance, is noted for its user-friendliness and clarity of visualizations, making it easier for stakeholders to interpret data. In contrast, CiteSpace offers robust features for evaluative analysis, allowing for a deeper exploration of specific research clusters. The ability of these tools to support the entire science mapping process – from data retrieval and preprocessing to visualization and interpretation – makes them invaluable for assessing the state of scientific research in developing countries.

The political implications of development metrics can’t be overlooked either. Lyall and Havice (2018) examine how metrics and measurement procedures affect development practices, using Fairtrade International as a case study. They argue that metrics often transform socio-economic visions of change into technical models, which can obscure the underlying political debates. In their study of Fairtrade-certified cut-flower plantations, they found that debates over competing visions of development often became overshadowed by technical disputes over metrics and measurements. This process, while seemingly neutral, consolidates the role of experts and technocrats in defining what development should look like, potentially sidelining the voices of local communities. The study underscores the need for a critical examination of the metrics used in evaluating development programs, emphasizing that such metrics are not merely technical tools but also instruments that shape political and social outcomes.

Taken together, these case studies and analyses underscore the multifaceted nature of science promotion in developing nations. Abdus Salam’s efforts are a testament to the power of science in fostering global equality and development. By examining the societal impact of scientific research, utilizing advanced mapping tools to track progress, and critically evaluating the political dimensions of development metrics, we can gain a comprehensive understanding of how to effectively promote science in developing regions. This holistic approach ensures that scientific advancements are not just confined to academic circles but translate into tangible benefits for society at large.

 2.1 Detailed Analysis of Nobel Prize-Winning Work and Electroweak Unification Theory

Abdus Salam’s work on electroweak unification theory, which garnered him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979, remains one of the monumental achievements in theoretical physics. This groundbreaking theory, developed in collaboration with Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg, unified the weak nuclear force and electromagnetism into a single theoretical framework. By harmonizing these two fundamental forces, the electroweak theory explained not only how particles interact but also why certain particles acquire mass while others remain massless.

Salam’s pioneering work is significant for its formulation within the Standard Model of particle physics, specifically through the SU(2) × U(1) gauge symmetry. This model suggested that the weak and electromagnetic forces could be described by a single gauge theory framework, thus representing a substantial paradigm shift in our understanding of fundamental interactions. The predictive power of their theory was confirmed experimentally with the discovery of the W and Z bosons at CERN’s Super Proton Synchrotron in 1983 (Boonekamp & Schott, 2020).

The theoretical underpinnings of electroweak unification offer a clear path from the abstract to the observable. For instance, Salam and his colleagues postulated that weak interactions are mediated by massive W and Z bosons, while electromagnetic interactions occur via the massless photon. The Higgs mechanism, another revolutionary component of the theory, provides a consistent explanation for how these bosons acquire mass. According to Boonekamp and Schott (2020), the Higgs field’s introduction was instrumental in understanding mass genesis, particularly for the weak force carriers.

Further investigations into the SU(2) × U(1) model have led to more intricate extensions and refinements. For instance, Palcu (2021) proposed an innovative approach using the SU(5)L × U(1)Y gauge group for electroweak unification. This model features a unique Higgs sector consisting of five scalar quintuplets, each acquiring its own vacuum expectation value. The theory simplifies the transition from high-energy scales to the low-energy regime of the Standard Model, preserving consistency with observational data. This novel parameterization leads to promising phenomenological outcomes, including a one-parameter mass spectrum and electric charge quantization. The implications for the fermion sector are also significant, predicting precisely three generations, which aligns with empirical observations.

In an alternative formalism, Wolk (2019) approached the pre-Higgs SU(2)L ⨂ U(1)Y unification, emphasizing the integration of left-chiral asymmetry. This formalism extends the intrinsic local gauge invariance to include an SU(2)L Lagrangian, effectively accommodating the interaction exclusivity of left-chiral Dirac fields via the W μ gauge field. This pre-Higgs mechanism, accommodating massless vector gauge fields, demonstrates that SU(2)L ⨂ U(1)Y unification is a natural phenomenon of the formalism, touching upon its intrinsic relation to the Poincaré group.

These advancements underscore the foundational significance of Salam’s electroweak unification theory. The theory’s experimental validation through the W and Z bosons’ discoveries not only confirmed the Standard Model’s reliability but also spurred further research into quantum field theories and particle physics’ unexplained mysteries. Researchers continue to probe the Standard Model’s limits, attempting to answer broader questions about dark matter, particle mass origins, and force unification. Salam’s seminal contributions have indelibly shaped these ongoing scientific endeavors, emphasizing the continual quest for deeper understanding in physics.

In conclusion, Salam’s work on electroweak unification theory represents a cornerstone of modern theoretical physics. The collaborative efforts and subsequent experimental proofs have validated the Standard Model’s accuracy, informing subsequent theoretical advancements and setting a high standard for scientific exploration. The detailed theoretical constructs and their phenomenological implications continue to shape the future trajectory of particle physics, underlying Salam’s enduring influence in the field.

2.2 Influence on Broader Theoretical Physics: Legacy and Subsequent Research Directions

Abdus Salam’s contributions to theoretical physics extend far beyond his Nobel Prize-winning work on electroweak unification. His research and vision have furthered numerous domains within the field, influencing a plethora of subsequent advancements and inspiring a generation of physicists. One such notable development has been in the realm of supersymmetry and string theories, which increasingly garnered scientific interest and empirical substantiation since Salam’s time (Li, Sun, & Zhang, 2022).

Salam’s initial forays into unifying fundamental forces paved the way for theoretical constructs like supersymmetry (SUSY) and the broader framework of string theory. In Li, Sun, and Zhang’s (2022) exploration of four-family supersymmetric Pati-Salam models, we observe the lasting impact of Salam’s theoretical methodologies. The authors devised multiple models from Type IIA T6/Z2×Z2 orientifold with intersecting D6-branes—evidencing how Salam’s theoretical underpinnings remain integral to contemporary investigations in supersymmetry (Li, Sun, & Zhang, 2022). The deterministic algorithms they employed underscored a continuity with Salam’s systematic, unifying approach, pushing the frontiers of string theory and offering prospects for understanding gauge coupling unification—a core concern in Salam’s electroweak theory.

Moreover, Salam’s influence permeates newer methodologies in the domain of quantum electrodynamics, particularly those investigating interactions at a macroscopic level. For example, the work by Franz, Buhmann, and Salam (2022) assesses resonance energy transfer among chiral molecules, relying on the principles of macroscopic quantum electrodynamics. The study highlights discrimination between molecular enantiomers, paralleling Salam’s broader quest to elucidate fundamental interactions within quantum field theories (Franz, Buhmann, & Salam, 2022). Salam’s foundational concepts in field theory thus have tangible implications for cutting-edge investigations in chemical physics and quantum mechanics, illustrating his work’s breadth and interdisciplinarity.

Salam’s impact is also discernible in the exploration of gauge theories beyond the Standard Model. As highlighted by Duff (2017), naming a physics lab in Pakistan after Salam signifies his lasting legacy in guiding both foundational and applied physics research. Salam’s vision was global and inclusive, with particular attention to graduate students and younger researchers in developing countries—a commitment that continues to bear fruit through numerous international partnerships and collaborative projects (Duff, 2017).

Salam’s work not only provided a theoretical scaffold for subsequent scientific explorations but also served to proliferate his methodologies and principles. This diffusion is evident in how theoretical physics has addressed unification concerns. For instance, contemporary theoretical constructs that examine modes of symmetry breaking and moduli stabilization in supersymmetry models draw directly from Salam’s pioneering contributions (Li, Sun, & Zhang, 2022). Advanced models that leverage Salam’s principles present possibilities for stabilizing phenomena at the string scale—an uncharted territory that advances our understanding of the universe’s underlying physical laws.

In sum, Abdus Salam’s influence in broader theoretical physics is multifaceted and continues to stimulate research and innovation across various subfields. His foundational contributions enabled a proliferation of unified theories and methodologies, essential for cutting-edge research in supersymmetry and quantum electrodynamics. The continuity of his legacy underscores the synergistic relationship between pioneering theoretical work and ongoing scientific inquiry, ensuring that modern physics remains deeply rooted in Salam’s expansive and integrative vision. Consistently, his efforts highlight the harmonizing bridge between complex theoretical abstractions and practical scientific applications, cementing his enduring impact on the discipline.

 3.1 Establishment of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) and Its Role in Global Science Education

The creation and enduring success of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) in Trieste, Italy, stand as a testament to Abdus Salam’s commitment to advancing science in the developing world. Established in 1964, the ICTP was the realization of Salam’s vision to create an institution that would bridge the gap between scientists in developed and developing nations. The ICTP was not merely an academic sanctuary for groundbreaking research, but also a dynamic hub designed to nurture scientific talent from countries with limited resources (Virasoro, 2017a).

Salam’s conception of the ICTP required more than just scientific acumen; it involved a nuanced understanding of global inequalities and the concerted steps needed to address these disparities. He was deeply moved by his ethical commitment to uplift marginalized communities and was adept at leveraging his efforts to impact sustenance and progression in global science. The ICTP offered scientists from developing nations a platform to engage with their peers across the globe, through seminars, workshops, and collaborative research projects. By exposing these scientists to cutting-edge research and facilitating collaborations, the ICTP helped build a robust scientific community capable of contributing to global scientific advancements (Virasoro, 2017b).

Salam’s adeptness at negotiating the political and financial hurdles necessary for establishing the ICTP cannot be overstated. He exhibited a remarkable ability to persuade international bodies, including UNESCO, to provide support for the center. His persuasive skills, paired with his ethical convictions, enabled him to secure the necessary backing to launch and sustain the ICTP. This accomplishment offered a compelling model for how scientific institutions could be forged in challenging socio-political landscapes (Virasoro, 2017a).

The enduring impact of the ICTP is evident from the remarkable scientific contributions of its alumni, many of whom have achieved significant milestones and continue to play pivotal roles in advancing science in their respective countries. Through its fellowships, visiting scientist programs, and educational initiatives, the ICTP has not only elevated the quality of scientific discourse but also contributed to the socio-economic development of participating nations. The legacy of the ICTP is firmly rooted in its ability to foster a spirit of scientific inquiry and international collaboration, thereby embodying Salam’s vision of a united, equitable scientific community (Virasoro, 2017b).

Furthermore, the ICTP has evolved by establishing regional partner institutions to replicate its success. Initiatives such as ICTP regional centers in Beijing and Kigali serve as a testament to its far-reaching influence. These satellites of the Trieste model underscore the adaptability and sustainability of the ICTP framework, reiterating its significance in scientific advancement. The commitment to developing regional competence ensures that the ICTP’s influence extends far beyond its original confines, thereby making a substantial impact on global scientific progress (Matthews, 2014).

In essence, the ICTP stands as a monumental achievement in the promotion of science globally, particularly in the developing world. Its role in fostering talent, encouraging collaborative research, and promoting scientific inquiry has left an indelible mark on global science education. Abdus Salam’s foresight, ethical commitment, and unwavering determination to elevate science in the developing world are encapsulated in the institution he founded. The ICTP continues to be a beacon of Salam’s ideals and a crucial player in the advancement of global science.

 3.2 Legacy and Ongoing Efforts in Science Advocacy: Programs, Awards, and Influences

The legacy of Abdus Salam extends far beyond his groundbreaking work in theoretical physics, positioning him as a formidable advocate for the promotion of science in developing countries. A key aspect of Salam’s enduring influence is manifested through his dedicated advocacy efforts, which have inspired various programs, awards, and sustained initiatives aimed at fostering scientific talent in the Third World. His work at the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) laid a significant foundation for these continuing endeavors.

A testament to Salam’s impact is the establishment of the ICTP in 1964, which he founded to advance theoretical physics globally, particularly in developing nations (Shankar, 2021). Salam’s vision was to create a hub where scientists from the Third World could collaborate and gain access to the resources and knowledge typically reserved for more developed countries. This center not only advanced scientific research but also enabled hundreds of scientists from marginalized backgrounds to pursue high-level research. Such efforts fostered a new generation of physicists who carried forward Salmon’s vision. The ICTP today remains a critical institution for scientific progress in developing nations, illustrating Salam’s enduring legacy.

Salam’s role in helping scientists facing religious persecution also underscores his commitment to science advocacy. He facilitated the migration of scientists from Pakistan to other parts of the world where they could continue their research without fear of persecution (Shankar, 2021). This move fostered a new form of global scientific collaboration, engendering an environment where cultural and political barriers were secondary to the pursuit of scientific advancement. The support network established through Salam’s efforts continues to benefit scientists dealing with similar issues today.

Another critical facet of Abdus Salam’s influence is the various awards, scholarships, and accolades created in his honor. These recognitions serve as vital resources to encourage ongoing research and education in physics and related fields. For instance, numerous organizations and educational institutions have established scholarships aimed at students from developing countries, taking inspiration from Salam’s own journey and dedication to education. These initiatives are pivotal in reducing the educational disparities between the core and periphery, addressing issues highlighted in world-systems theory, where the wealth and resources of the developing world are often funneled into more developed areas (World-System, 2024).

In terms of ongoing science advocacy, the establishment of initiatives like the Edward Bouchet Institute also highlights the complexities and conflicts inherent in promoting science across diverse cultural contexts (Shankar, 2021). The African and South-Asian collaboration orchestrated by Salam didn’t always align with the self-reliance and cultural autonomy sought by African scientists. These conflicts point to the broader challenges in global scientific collaborations, underscoring the importance of culturally sensitive approaches to research and development. Salam’s inclusion in these conversations, despite the cultural tensions, indicates his broad and comprehensive influence on science advocacy.

Additionally, the notion of identifying and nurturing “potential” in specific demographics, as explored in the work of Moeller (2018), can also be linked to Salam’s advocacy model. While Moeller discusses the “Girl Effect” in Brazil, targeting adolescent girls with unique potential to alleviate poverty, a parallel can be drawn to Salam’s focus on discovering and nurturing underrepresented scientific talents in the Third World. Salam’s efforts can be seen as a precursor to such modern-day initiatives, aiming to empower marginalized groups through education and scientific advancement.

Finally, Salam’s vision for an inclusive scientific community continues to resonate with contemporary advocates who stress the importance of breaking down the socio-economic and political barriers to scientific education and research. This vision is aligned with Popper’s (1959) ideas about scientific discovery, emphasizing the role of open and critical inquiry in advancing knowledge. Salam’s legacy in promoting open-access scientific research via platforms like ICTP mirrors Popper’s philosophical tenets, reinforcing the notion that eliminating barriers to scientific discourse and collaboration is essential for societal progress.

Collectively, these elements underscore Abdus Salam’s enduring influence on science advocacy. His efforts have established a legacy of support for scientists in developing countries, provided ongoing inspiration for future initiatives, and demonstrated the critical role of inclusive scientific communities in addressing global challenges. The continued impact of his work attests to the transformative power of dedicated, visionary leadership in science.

Summary:

This essay provides a comprehensive examination of Abdus Salam’s significant contributions to theoretical physics and his profound influence on the promotion of science in developing countries. Salam, a Nobel laureate recognized for his pioneering work on electroweak unification theory, has had a lasting impact not only on the scientific community but also on the global landscape of science education and research. The essay delves into his academic journey, highlighting how Salam emerged from a context where scientific endeavors were predominantly localized in the West. By forging critical advancements in theoretical physics, he served as a model for aspiring scientists from developing nations, demonstrating the viability of a successful scientific career despite socio-economic barriers.

In addition to his scientific achievements, the essay discusses Salam’s role as an advocate for science education and research. Through the establishment of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) in Trieste, Italy, he created an influential platform designed to nurture scientific talent and encourage collaboration between scientists from developed and developing regions. The ICTP not only offered invaluable resources and opportunities but also played a pivotal role in shaping the careers of numerous scientists from underrepresented backgrounds. The ongoing success of the ICTP highlights the profound influence of Salam’s vision in promoting equitable access to scientific knowledge and fostering a robust international scientific community.

Furthermore, the essay underscores Salam’s emphasis on addressing global inequalities, demonstrating how his advocacy extended beyond theoretical physics to embrace a more holistic approach to science promotion. It examines various initiatives, awards, and programs established in honor of Salam, illustrating the continuing pursuit of his legacy within the context of global science education. Through these efforts, Salam’s commitment to uplifting marginalized communities is evident, indicating a blueprint for bridging the gap between developed and developing nations in scientific exploration.

In conclusion, Abdus Salam’s legacy is a testament to the transformative power of science in driving socio-economic development and fostering global equality. His contributions to theoretical physics, coupled with his fervent advocacy for collaborative research and education, continue to inspire a new generation of scientists seeking to address some of the most pressing challenges faced by the global community. As the essay elucidates, Salam’s impact resonates deeply in contemporary scientific discourse, encouraging future generations to pursue scientific inquiry unencumbered by socio-economic or political barriers.

References:

Altarelli, G., & Forte, S.. (2020). The Standard Model of Electroweak Interactions. Particle Physics Reference Library, 35–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38207-0_3

Boonekamp, M., & Schott, M.. (2020). Electroweak Interactions and W, Z Boson Properties. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Physics. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190871994.013.68

Borrelli, A.. (2018). The Weinberg‐Salam Model of Electroweak Interactions: Ingenious Discovery or Lucky Hunch?. Annalen Der Physik, 530. https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.201700454

Duff, M. J.. (2017). Abdus Salam’s legacy. Physics World, 30, 24–24. https://doi.org/10.1088/2058-7058/30/1/38

Franz, J., Buhmann, S., & Salam, A.. (2022). Macroscopic quantum electrodynamics theory of resonance energy transfer involving chiral molecules. Physical Review A. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevA.107.032809

Li, T., Sun, R., & Zhang, C.. (2022). Four-family =1 supersymmetric Pati–Salam models from intersecting D6-branes. Communications in Theoretical Physics, 74. https://doi.org/10.1088/1572-9494/ac6747

Lyall, A., & Havice, E.. (2018). The Politics of Development Metrics and Measurement: Impact Evaluations in Fairtrade‐certified Plantation Agriculture. Development and Change, 50(6), 1531–1553. https://doi.org/10.1111/dech.12452

Markscheffel, B., & Schröter, F.. (2021). Comparison of two science mapping tools based on software technical evaluation and bibliometric case studies. COLLNET Journal of Scientometrics and Information Management, 15, 365–396. https://doi.org/10.1080/09737766.2021.1960220

Matthews, J. N. A.. (2014). From Beijing to Kigali, ICTP makes itself at home in the developing world. Physics Today, 67(10), 20–22. https://doi.org/10.1063/pt.3.2542

Moeller, K.. (2018). Searching for Third World Potential. Gender Effect. https://doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520286382.003.0005

Newton, I. (1687). Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica.

Palcu, A.. (2021). SU(5)L × U(1)Y electroweak unification. Progress of Theoretical and Experimental Physics. https://doi.org/10.1093/ptep/ptab119

Petrisor, A., & Ilovan, O.-R.. (2023). Are science metrics beneficial to sustainability? A standpoint of disciplines with a societal impact. Present Environment and Sustainable Development. https://doi.org/10.47743/pesd2023171009

Popper, K. (1959). The Logic of Scientific Discovery.

Shankar, S.. (2021). Third World science. An Uneasy Embrace, 115–144. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197619407.003.0005

Virasoro, M. A.. (2017). Abdus Salam: The passionate, compassionate man and, his masterpiece, the ICTP. International Journal of Modern Physics A, 32(8), 1741002. https://doi.org/10.1142/s0217751x17410020

Virasoro, M.. (2017). Abdus Salam: The passionate, compassionate man and, his masterpiece, the ICTP. International Journal of Modern Physics A, 32, 1741002. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0217751X17410020

Vizgin, V. P.. (2024). HISTORY OF CREATION AND METAPHYSICAL ASPECTS OF ELECTROWEAK THEORY: DEVELOPMENT AND MODIFICATIONS OF THE SYMMETRY PRINCIPLE. Metaphysics. https://doi.org/10.22363/2224-7580-2024-1-92-122

Wolk, B.. (2019). An alternative formalism for generating pre-Higgs SU ( 2 ) L ⨂ U ( 1 ) Y electroweak unification that intrinsically accommodates SU(2) left-chiral asymmetry. Physica Scripta, 94. https://doi.org/10.1088/1402-4896/aaf7a9

World-System. (2024). World-System. Third World Studies, 91–111. https://doi.org/10.1215/9781478059653-005


Photo by Muneer ahmed ok on Unsplash

Like this Essay?

Share on Facebook
Share on Twitter
Share on Linkdin
Share on Pinterest

Be a Gold Member

$19/month. Cancel anytime.

Get 200 credits monthly (that roll over), 50% off additional credits, personal WhatsApp assistance, & early access to new features

Powered by

My Credits

You must be logged in to view your credits.

Request received.

Your essay ID: 

You’ll be mailed your essay in up to:

Please check spam.
If you don’t receive a confirmation email in the next few minutes, please contact support@virtuai-team.com

Buy Credits

You must sign in to purchase credits.

Don’t have an account? Let’s get started

Powered by