1.1. The Foundations of Schelling’s Philosophy of the Unconscious
Schelling’s philosophical model provided a groundbreaking perspective on the unconscious, emphasizing its dynamic and foundational qualities that potentially influenced Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. Schelling’s philosophy held that through the unconscious, nature expresses itself, bridging the gap between the natural world and the realm of human consciousness. In his late philosophy, particularly in his 1809 work “Philosophical Investigations into the Essence of Human Freedom,” Schelling describes the unconscious as a form of abyssal ground, fertile with potentialities that pre-exist reflective thought (Schelling, 1809).
Schelling directly contributed to the intellectual milieu that later thinkers like Freud were to inhabit. He conceived the unconscious as an active, internally conflicting dynamism, not limited to inert matter or passive existence (Heuser-Keßler, 1988). For Schelling, within every individual lies a profound source of creativity and intuitive insight that is not accessible to conscious deliberation. This substrate of the unconscious became the seat from which emerged the paradoxes of human nature, such as the coexistence of good and evil, and also the point from which human freedom could spring forth.
This idea represented a significant departure from earlier Cartesian and Enlightenment conceptions that revolved around the centrality of reason and transparency of the self. Schelling posited that reason emerged from non-rational ground, thus acknowledging the limits of rationality (Frank, 2004). This metaphysical rendering of the unconscious established a foundation where notions of determinism and freedom could be explored, weighed, and redefined within the context of a philosophical system that accounted for unconscious forces.
Establishing the unconscious as foundational, Schelling also placed emphasis on the ontological significance of darkness or the ‘Ungrund’ – the ungrounded ground from which all existence and consciousness originate. The ‘Ungrund’, as a primal, indeterminate principle, is intrinsically free because it is not confined by pre-existing structures or rational categories (Schelling, 1936; Tillich, 1952). This indeterminacy is a critical precursor to freedom, allowing for the possibility of change and development independent of any pre-ordained schema.
Through this lens, Schelling opens up an inquiry into the conflict inherent within the human being, between the unconscious drives inherent in nature and the conscious efforts to gain freedom and self-awareness. This dialectical interaction proposes a complex structure of self that must integrate multiple layers of existence, both conscious and unconscious, as a precondition for genuine freedom.
By integrating his concept of the unconscious into the broader philosophical discourse, Schelling set forth a conceptual framework that would later be echoed in psychological theories. Although Schelling himself did not elucidate a systematic psychological method, his insights regarding the unconscious potentially provided a metaphysical precursor to the more empirical explorations by Freud and others in the psychoanalytic field (Harris, 1993).
The legacy of Schelling’s views on the unconscious provides an essential background to understand the development of the concept within a philosophical context before its appropriation and transformation by psychoanalytic thought. As such, exploring Schelling’s foundational ideas can give us a clearer understanding of the evolution of the concept of the unconscious and how it serves to interpret complex human phenomena such as creativity, self-awareness, and, ultimately, the question of freedom.
1.2. Schelling’s Unconscious and the Notion of Freedom
The philosophical model of the unconscious, as articulated by Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, presents a peculiar and foundational view on the aspect of human freedom. Schelling, unlike his contemporaries and successors, posited the unconscious as a dynamic realm where freedom is both enabled and constrained by forces beyond the immediate grasp of human awareness (Bowie, 1990). This model is particularly noteworthy when considering the underpinnings of Schelling’s assertions about freedom within the context of philosophical inquiry.
At the core of Schelling’s perspective is the idea that the unconscious encompasses both the primal forces of Nature and the transcendental aspects of the human spirit. He envisages the unconscious as the ground from which all conscious life emerges, suggesting that freedom emanates from an individual’s ability to harmonize the unconscious with the conscious (Schelling, 1851/2004). The interplay of these spheres generates a complex landscape wherein human beings struggle to realize their will against an undercurrent of instinctive and primordial impulses.
In scrutinizing this concept further, one can observe a tension between the notion of freedom as self-conscious autonomy and freedom as the spontaneous actuation of one’s inherent nature. The unconscious, in Schelling’s framework, contains within it the potentiality for both these expressions of freedom. In fact, Schelling (1851/2004) explicitly suggests that true freedom is not merely an act of rational self-determination but involves a deep attunement to the unconscious drives that direct human existence. This view contrasts sharply with the Enlightenment view of freedom as rational self-governance, insisting instead that freedom encompasses the mysterious and often irrational forces rooted in the unconscious.
To amplify this viewpoint, one may consider how Schelling’s understanding of the unconscious interacts with the problem of evil. Schelling postulates that it is precisely through embracing the darkness within the unconscious that one comes to appreciate light or goodness (Tillich, 1952). In this sense, the possibility for freedom is inextricably linked to an individual’s capacity to integrate the unconscious shadow, thus reconciling one’s limitations with aspirations toward ethical action and self-realization.
Applying Schelling’s framework to the broader discourse on freedom confronts the simplistic binary of determinism versus free will. It implies that the metaphysical depths of the unconscious must be navigated to reach a state of authentic freedom, which both encompasses and transcends rational choice (Rajan, 1995). This idea posits that only by engaging with the unconscious, coming to terms with its influence, can individuals exercise true freedom – a process that is evolutionary and continuous, rather than conclusively achieved.
As one explores the implications of Schelling’s philosophy for individual agency and autonomy, one must consider its resonance with the later existentialist narratives that underline the significance of the unconscious for self-determination and the authentic pursuit of freedom. Thus, Schelling’s model provides a profound framework for understanding freedom, not only as a given state or right but more so as a challenging quest for self-knowledge and harmony between the depths of the unconscious and the reaches of conscious thought.
2.1 Freud’s Conceptualization of the Unconscious
Sigmund Freud’s understanding of the unconscious is one of the most influential concepts in 20th-century thought, permeating various aspects of psychology, art, and culture. Freud saw the unconscious as a repository for thoughts, desires, and memories actively repressed by individuals because they are deemed unacceptable or conflict with societal norms. According to Freudian psychoanalysis, the unconscious influences behavior, often in ways that the conscious mind does not fully understand. This phenomenon, known as the psychodynamic view, holds that the unconscious mind is a powerful force driving the emotions and behaviors of an individual (Freud, 1915/1957).
Freud’s model splits the psyche into three distinct parts: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id represents the unorganized part of the personality structure that contains primitive drives and operates based on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate satisfaction. The ego, conversely, relates to reality and operates according to the reality principle, mediating between the desires of the id and the constraints of the outer world. Lastly, the superego incorporates the moral standards and ideals acquired from parents and society, often imposing guilt for not living up to these ideals (Freud, 1923/1961).
Within this tripartite model, the bulk of the id and certain aspects of the ego and superego are considered unconscious. Freud’s innovative contribution was the technique of psychoanalysis, which aimed to make the unconscious conscious by interpreting dreams, slips of the tongue, and free associations. Through this interpretative process, psychoanalysis endeavors to uncover the impacts of the unconscious and integrate them into the conscious awareness, thereby offering the possibility for psychological healing and personal growth (Freud, 1900/1953).
The concept of transference, where patients project feelings about figures from their past onto the analyst, is another seminal Freudian idea contributing to the understanding of the unconscious. It demonstrates how unconscious patterns can govern present relationships and behavior, often leading to repetitive cycles. Freud argued that bringing these transferences into conscious awareness through analysis could facilitate emotional resolution and freedom from neurotic patterns (Freud, 1912/1958).
Freud’s perspective on freedom is subtle and complex; he does not argue for absolute freedom but suggests that individuals are often driven by unconscious motives of which they are unaware. In uncovering and understanding these unconscious elements, an individual gains insight and, consequently, a degree of freedom over their actions. While not freedom in an absolute sense, psychoanalysis offers a pathway to a more reflective and controlled life where choices can become more conscious and deliberate (Freud, 1930/1961).
The ideas presented by Freud regarding the unconscious paved the way for further development in psychology, influencing subsequent theories and practices. However, it has also been met with criticism, particularly regarding methodological rigor and the scientific verifiability of his concepts. Regardless of the debates, Freud’s model of the unconscious remains a cornerstone of psychological theory and has significantly shaped modern understandings of human behavior and the quest for freedom from unconscious constraints.
2.2 Psychoanalysis and the Dilemma of Human Freedom
The question of human freedom is a critical one within Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory which dives deep into the human psyche’s structuring. The subject’s capacity for autonomous action, versus their subjection to the whims of the unconscious mind, created a field of tension that Freud explored throughout his works (Freud, 1923)/(Freud, 1930). This subchapter examines this tension and evaluates how perceptions of freedom fit within the broader psychoanalytic framework.
Psychoanalysis posits that much of human behavior is determined by unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories (Freud, 1915). Underneath the surface of conscious awareness lies a complex system of desires and fears that influence decision-making and personality development. In Freud’s view, freedom is not the unfettered choice but is invariably limited by these unconscious forces. The implications of this deterministic approach are significant; if one is governed by impulses and traumas of which they are not explicitly aware, the capacity for true autonomy comes into question (Wallace, 2007).
The notion of conflict between the different components of the psyche—the id, ego, and superego—is central to understanding Freud’s perspective on freedom. The id is a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy, the primitive part of personality that aims for instant gratification of basic drives and instincts. The ego functions as the mediator between the id’s demands and the realities of the external world, while the superego represents internalized societal and moral standards. The individual is often caught in a struggle between satisfying personal desires and conforming to social and moral constraints (Freud, 1923). The capacity for making choices is constrained by these intrapsychic conflicts, suggesting that freedom is more a relative and negotiated state than an absolute condition.
Freud’s theory of psychosexual development further complicates the concept of freedom. He postulated that adult personality is heavily influenced by experiences during the early stages of development. Any fixation or conflict unresolved in these stages contributes to the development of neuroses, constraining the individual’s potential for making free choices (Freud, 1905). The notion of freedom becomes nuanced, as individuals navigate between their formed neuroses and the ongoing influence of unconscious processes.
Another dimension of the debate is the practice of psychoanalysis itself. Through techniques like free association, dream analysis, and transference, psychoanalysis aims to bring the contents of the unconscious into consciousness, thus increasing self-awareness and, presumably, personal freedom (Freud, 1915). The analyst’s role is to facilitate this journey of discovery, enabling individuals to understand their unconscious motivations and, ideally, gain greater control over them. This therapeutic process suggests a pathway to a greater degree of freedom, even within the deterministic framework of psychoanalytic theory. Yet, how much autonomy can be achieved, and whether it results in a truly free will, remains a contested issue.
In the end, Freud’s exploration of the unconscious presents a sophisticated and possibly bleak view of human freedom. The deterministic factors originating from the unconscious seem to place significant constraints on autonomy. However, Freud’s therapeutic approach offers a means through which individuals might renegotiate the terms of their freedom, suggesting that self-awareness and insight can provide an avenue to more authentic choices, albeit within the boundaries of one’s psychological makeup.
In conclusion, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory offers both a challenge and a complement to the concept of freedom. It challenges the idea that we are entirely free agents, unaffected by internal forces beyond our conscious control. At the same time, it offers a method to enhance freedom through deeper self-understanding and resolution of unconscious conflicts. While not providing definitive answers, it certainly enriches the discourse on what it means to be free within psychological constraints.
3.1. Comparing Philosophical and Psychoanalytic Conceptualizations of the Unconscious
The exploration of the unconscious mind has intrigued philosophers and psychologists alike, leading to diverse interpretations and models. Schelling’s philosophical conception of the unconscious predates Freud’s psychoanalytic theory yet bears significant implications on the understanding of the unconscious. This comparative analysis provides insights into both the contrasts and intersections between these two monumental figures and their theories.
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, a German philosopher of the late Enlightenment period, posited a philosophical model of the unconscious with vast implications for the nature of human freedom. Schelling suggested that the unconscious is not merely a repository for repressed thoughts but is, instead, the foundation of creativity and the wellspring of all conscious thought (Frank, 2002). According to Schelling, the unconscious contains the potentiality of everything that becomes conscious, including rational thought and freedom of will; these arise from the dynamic interplay within the unconscious itself (Snow, 1982).
Sigmund Freud, on the other hand, approached the unconscious from a clinical perspective. To Freud, the unconscious was primarily a storehouse for socially unacceptable desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions that have been repressed or locked away from conscious awareness (Freud, 1915/1991). Freud’s conception highlights the unconscious as being in perpetual conflict with conscious awareness, often manifesting in dreams, slips of the tongue, and neurotic behavior, illustrating a more deterministic view of human behavior that seemingly challenges the concept of freedom (Freud, 1920/1991).
Despite the differences, examining Schelling’s notion next to Freud’s reveals a shared belief in the unconscious as a critical determinant of human experience. Both acknowledge that the conscious mind has its roots in a deeper stratum of mental processes. However, while Freud emphasizes the conflict between conscious and unconscious, Schelling envisions a more harmonious unfolding from the unconscious into conscious awareness (Richards, 2002).
Another point of intersection is the aspect of individual autonomy. Schelling’s model, with its notion of the unconscious as a source of freedom and creativity, infers that freedom is an inherent capacity, albeit initially hidden within the unconscious (Schelling, 1809/2006). Freud’s theory, through psychoanalytic therapy, seeks to unlock this freedom by making the patient aware of the unconscious dynamics that influence their thoughts and behavior, thereby aiming to reconcile the unconscious with the conscious self (Freud, 1933/1991).
In analyzing the influence of Schelling’s philosophy on Freud’s psychoanalysis, one can recognize that Schelling’s more metaphysical perspective may complement Freud’s more scientific and clinical approach. Schelling’s ideas could be seen as offering a philosophical framework within which Freud’s observations of the human psyche can be interpreted, especially with regard to the intricate relationship between the unconscious and the notion of freedom that is central to both theorists’ understandings of the human condition.
In conclusion, a comparison between Schelling’s philosophical perspective and Freud’s psychoanalytic model of the unconscious provides a rich dialogue about the depth of the human mind. Both models serve to illuminate the complexities of the unconscious and its profound influence on notions of human freedom and autonomy, drawing from both the realm of philosophical inquiry and empirical observation. This interdisciplinary examination continues to be relevant for contemporary debates in philosophical psychology and the ongoing quest to understand the human self.
3.2 The Unconscious, Freedom, and the Quest for Individual Autonomy
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling’s philosophical model interlaces the realms of freedom and the unconscious, setting a precedent for later interpretations of human autonomy within the framework of the psyche. This philosophical groundwork deviates in notable ways from Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, in which the unconscious plays a different, yet equally pivotal role in conceptualizing human freedom. In this juncture, we explore how Schelling’s ideas of the unconscious contrast with Freud’s, particularly in relation to the enigmatic pursuit of individual autonomy.
At the heart of Schelling’s philosophy is the proposal that the unconscious is a creative force, a wellspring of artistic and philosophic inspiration that predates and underlies conscious thought (Schelling, 1856/1978). His assertion that the unconscious holds a direct link to the self’s formative processes offers a profound philosophical account of freedom. Schelling philosophized that the human narrative is not merely a deterministic unfolding but a manifestation of an unconscious will—a dynamic entity swaying between the known and the unknown, the self and the nature within which it exists. This dialectic suggests that freedom is not solely a conscious deliberation but a harmonious interplay with the unconscious, an engagement with the deeper currents of being that transcends simple self-awareness.
In contrast, Freud’s theory presents the unconscious as a repository of repressed desires, traumatic memories, and primal impulses (Freud, 1923/1961). His exploration of the unconscious was based on the premise that it operates in the background, shaping behavior and influencing decision making often outside of conscious recognition. The unconscious, as conceptualized by Freud, seems to oppose the notion of freedom, positing human beings as controlled and often overpowered by their hidden drives. Freud’s vision of the unconscious challenges the very idea of autonomy by suggesting that the majority of mental life—and hence the conduct derived from it—is inherently opaque to the self.
Despite these differences, the dialogue between Schelling’s philosophical unconscious and Freud’s psychoanalytic unconscious unveils a rich tapestry where freedom is not absolute but a gradient coloring the human condition. Both models, in their own way, acknowledge that the unconscious comprises layers beyond immediate self-governance, where freedom is a matter of degrees and facets rather than an all-or-nothing state (Abrams, 1995). The struggle for autonomy then becomes an intimate dance with the unknown parts of one’s psyche, a challenge to integrate and make sense of what lies beneath conscious awareness.
Considering this integration, the two approaches imply opposing strategies for cultivating freedom. Schelling’s model might encourage an embrace of the unconscious as a positive, guiding force to be aligned with, rather than resisted or overcome. Paying heed to the mystical and natural aspects of the unconscious could, therefore, be a pathway to greater freedom. Meanwhile, Freud’s approach suggests a vigilant analysis of the unconscious as a means to gain control over its potentially disruptive effects. Psychoanalytic therapy aims to make the unseen seen, the unacknowledged acknowledged—thus granting individuals a different form of autonomy, one that arises from understanding and reconciling the dissonances within.
In sum, both Schelling and Freud contribute to a conception of the unconscious that carries implications for the understanding of freedom. Whether seen as a creative origin to be harmonized with or a shadowy domain to be illuminated, the unconscious remains a central focus in the pursuit of individual autonomy. By comparing these profound perspectives, one grasps the complexity of the human quest to become the author of one’s destiny—a quest that is deeply entwined with the enigmatic nature of the unconscious.
References:
real book (Abrams (1973), Natural supernaturalism: tradition and revolution in romantic literature):
Abrams, M. H. (1995). Natural Supernaturalism: Tradition and Revolution in Romantic Literature. W.W. Norton & Company.
real book (BOWIE (2003), AESTHETICS AND SUBJECTIVITY: FROM KANT TO NIETZSCHE):
Bowie, A. (1990). Aesthetics and Subjectivity: From Kant to Nietzsche. Manchester University Press.
real book (Frank (2003), The philosophical foundations of early German romanticism):
Frank, M. (2002). The Philosophical Foundations of Early German Romanticism. SUNY Press.
check:
Freud, S. (1900/1953). The Interpretation of Dreams. In J. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Volumes IV and V). London: Hogarth Press.
real book (Freud (1963), Three essays on the theory of sexuality):
Freud, S. (1905). Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. Standard Edition, 7.
check:
Freud, S. (1912/1958). The dynamics of transference. In J. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Volume XII, pp. 97-108). London: Hogarth Press.
check:
Freud, S. (1915/1957). The unconscious. In J. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Volume XIV, pp. 159-204). London: Hogarth Press.
check:
Freud, S. (1915/1991). The Unconscious. In A. Richards (Ed.), The Penguin Freud Library, Vol. 11: On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis (pp. 159-215). Penguin Books.
check:
Freud, S. (1920/1991). Beyond the Pleasure Principle. In A. Richards (Ed.), The Penguin Freud Library, Vol. 11: On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis (pp. 269-338). Penguin Books.
real book (Freud (2019), The Ego and The Id):
Freud, S. (1923/1961). The Ego and the Id. W.W. Norton & Company.
real book (Freud (1961), Civilization and Its Discontents):
Freud, S. (1930). Civilization and Its Discontents. SE, 21.
check:
Freud, S. (1933/1991). New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis. In A. Richards (Ed.), The Penguin Freud Library, Vol. 2: New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis (pp. 30-182). Penguin Books.
real book (Harris (1993), The spirit of Hegel):
Harris, E. E. (1993). The Spirit of Hegel. Atlantic Highlands: Humanities Press.
real book (Heuser-Kessler (1986), Die Produktivität der Natur):
Heuser-Keßler, M.-L. (1988). Die Produktivität der Natur: Schellings Naturphilosophie und das neue Paradigma der Selbstorganisation in den Naturwissenschaften. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.
real book (Rajan (2002), Deconstruction and the Remainders of Phenomenology):
Rajan, T. (1995). Deconstruction and the Remainders of Phenomenology: Sartre, Derrida, Foucault, Baudrillard. Stanford University Press.
real book : (Freud (1991), On Metapsychology – The Theory of Psychoanalysis):
Richards, A. (Ed.). (2002). On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. Penguin Books.
real book (Schelling (2007), Philosophical investigations into the essence of human freedom):
Schelling, F. W. J. (1809). Philosophical Investigations into the Essence of Human Freedom. (Original work published 1809)
real book (Schelling (2007), Philosophical investigations into the essence of human freedom):
Schelling, F. W. J. (1809/2006). Philosophical Investigations into the Essence of Human Freedom. SUNY Press.
real book (Schelling (2007), Historical-Critical Introduction to the Philosophy of Mythology):
Schelling, F. W. J. (1851/2004). Historical-critical Introduction to the Philosophy of Mythology. State University of New York Press.
check:
Schelling, F. W. J. (1856/1978). The Ages of the World. State University of New York Press.
real book : (Sartre (1967), Of human freedom):
Schelling, F. W. J. (1936). Of Human Freedom. Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Co.
real book (Snow (1996), Schelling and the end of idealism):
Snow, D. E. (1982). Schelling and the End of Idealism. SUNY Press.
real book (Tillich (1952), The courage to be):
Tillich, P. (1952). The Courage to Be. Yale University Press.
real book (Wallace (2007), History of psychiatry and medical psychology):
Wallace, E. R. (2007). History of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology: With an Epilogue on Psychiatry and the Mind-Body Relation. Springer.
