Abstract:
This essay examines the evolution of ranching in the American West from the late 19th century to present, focusing on how ranching practices have transformed over time in response to cultural, economic, and environmental factors. The primary research question posed is: In what ways has ranching evolved in the American West over this period, and how have these changes manifested in operational and societal contexts? The essay discusses the early influences on ranching, particularly the integration of Spanish methods, the role of legislation like the Homestead Act, advancements in technology, and the impact of federal policies on grazing rights and land use. It concludes that the evolution of ranching reflects a complex interplay of heritage, economic adaptability, and emerging sustainability practices, positioning ranching not just as an agricultural endeavor but as a cultural identity pivotal to the American ethos. Modern ranching continues to grapple with urbanization challenges, necessitating innovative practices that align economic viability with environmental stewardship. The findings underscore the resilience of ranching communities and their ongoing adaptations to the changing landscape of the American West.
Keywords: ranching evolution, American West, sustainability, cultural identity, federal policies
1.1 The Beginnings of Ranching in the American West: Spanish Influence and Cattle Drives
The origins of ranching in the American West can be traced back to the late 19th century, particularly influenced by Spanish colonization and the transfer of ranching techniques from Spain to the New World. The Spanish introduced cattle ranching practices that would later become foundational to American ranching culture. They brought with them not only cattle but also the vaquero tradition, which laid the groundwork for the cowboy ethos integral to the American West. The initial phase of this transformation was marked by a complex interplay between indigenous practices, Spanish colonial strategies, and the push for land exploration and utilization.
According to Danel (2021), during their explorations of the Americas and the South Sea, Spanish chronicles documented early ideas about trans-Pacific contacts, which were influenced by both biblical traditions and new geographical theories. These chronicles provide insight into the broader worldview that motivated Spanish colonization efforts, including the introduction of European livestock and agricultural practices to the New World. The belief in these trans-Pacific contacts and the quest for new lands were significant motivators for the spread of Spanish influence across the Americas, including the introduction of cattle ranching.
Ranching practices in the American West also evolved through the significant utilization of open-range grazing, a method well-suited to the vast, unclaimed lands of the frontier. In the late 19th century, figures like David Rankin became pivotal in the expansion and institutionalization of cattle ranching. Rankin’s involvement in Nebraska’s Sandhills, highlighted by Combs (2023), demonstrates the practical and economic challenges faced by early ranchers, including extinguishing Native American titles and addressing diseases like Texas fever that plagued herds. These efforts, while often controversial, were crucial in establishing the infrastructure necessary for the large-scale cattle drives and roundups that characterized the era. Rankin’s Bar 7 Ranch became emblematic of these early endeavors, contributing to the iconic status of the open-range rancher in American folklore.
Key to understanding the Spanish influence on American ranching is the role of the vaquero. The vaqueros were skilled horsemen and cattle herders who were integral to the early ranching operations in Spanish colonies. They brought with them techniques such as roping and branding, which became standard practices in American cattle ranching. Boza and Solórzano Fonseca (2019) emphasize the importance of indigenous trade networks in Caribbean Central America, which inadvertently facilitated the spread of Spanish ranching techniques. The dense web of indigenous trade and interaction with European colonizers created a unique blend of practices that influenced the Spanish colonial strategy and ranching techniques. This cross-cultural exchange was crucial in cementing the vaquero methodology into the broader ranching framework of the American West.
Moreover, the role of cattle drives cannot be overlooked in discussing the evolution of ranching. Cattle drives were essential for moving large herds of cattle from grazing grounds to market or railheads, often involving long and arduous journeys. These drives were heavily influenced by the practices brought over by the Spanish, particularly the management and movement of large herds of cattle over long distances. Techniques such as the round-up and the long drive became enduring symbols of the American frontier spirit, echoing the Spanish influence from centuries earlier. The cultural persistence of cattle drives underscores how deeply ingrained these practices became in the American ranching tradition, perpetuating the legacy of Spanish and vaquero influence.
In conclusion, the beginnings of ranching in the American West were significantly shaped by Spanish colonization, the introduction of cattle and vaquero practices, and the economic conditions of the late 19th century. Figures like David Rankin exemplified the entrepreneurial spirit that drove the expansion of ranching, while the integration of indigenous and Spanish techniques created a unique cultural and operational framework that defined early American ranching. This period set the stage for the technological, environmental, and regulatory changes that would later transform the industry. The ritualized practices of cattle drives and the enduring influence of the vaquero continue to resonate in modern ranching, highlighting the foundational role of these early influences in the evolution of ranching in the American West.
1.2 The Economics and Social Dynamics of 19th-Century Ranching: Homesteading, Cowboys, and Open Range
The late 19th century marked a significant period of economic transformation and evolving social dynamics in the American West, particularly within the scope of ranching. The United States saw a dramatic change in its landscape and demographic composition due in large part to homesteading laws, economic shifts, and the cultural identity forged by cowboys. At the heart of these changes was the Homestead Act of 1862, which sought to make land accessible to a wider range of people by granting 160 acres of public land to settlers for a nominal fee, provided they built a dwelling and cultivated the land for five years (Homestead Act of 1862, ch. 75, 12 Stat. 392).
The Homestead Act and its subsequent amendments, such as the Enlarged Homestead Act of 1909, played pivotal roles in shaping the economic landscape of the American West. These laws were designed to encourage westward expansion and populate the American frontier. The Enlarged Homestead Act addressed the unique challenges of the arid western terrain by increasing the maximum allotment to 320 acres, acknowledging the geophysical realities that made smaller plots impractical for sustainable farming and ranching (Gregg, 2019). As a result, these legislative measures contributed to the economic feasibility of large-scale ranching by allowing ranchers to acquire extensive tracts of land. This increased access to land facilitated the establishment of larger, more economically viable ranch operations, contributing significantly to the regional economy.
The burgeoning industrial economy of the late 19th century further impacted the agricultural and ranching sectors. As detailed by Adams (2021), the post-Civil War period saw the United States emerging as a powerhouse in both mining and manufacturing. This industrial growth led to increased demands for agricultural and livestock products, driving innovation and productivity in the agricultural sector. New organizational and technological advances enabled ranchers to increase their output, meeting the growing needs of an industrializing nation. However, this period was not without its challenges; the concentration of wealth and power often resulted in populist movements and labor strikes. These social dynamics underscored the tensions within a rapidly evolving economic landscape and highlighted the critical role of ranchers and agricultural workers in shaping the national economy.
Cowboys emerged as key figures in the cultural and economic framework of ranching. Their lifestyle and labor were integral to the success of the open-range system, wherein vast, unfenced tracts of land were used for grazing cattle. The open-range system was economically efficient as it allowed cattle to graze freely, reducing the need for extensive infrastructure. Cowboys drove cattle over long distances, often to railheads where livestock could be shipped to markets in the East (Loranger & Divita, 2023). This period also saw the development of iconic Western attire, such as cowboy boots, which became symbols of the rugged individualism and multicultural heritage of the American West. The craft of bootmaking, incorporating influences from various cultures, further illustrated the complex social fabric of the Western frontier.
Despite these developments, the open-range system began to decline towards the end of the 19th century due to a combination of factors. Overgrazing, severe winters, and the introduction of barbed wire led to the fencing of previously open lands, transitioning towards more controlled and sustainable grazing practices. This shift was also influenced by legislative changes aimed at managing public land use more effectively and addressing environmental concerns. The range wars and conflicts over grazing rights exemplified the growing pains of an evolving industry as it adapted to new economic and environmental realities.
In summary, the late 19th-century ranching industry was profoundly shaped by federal homesteading policies, technological advancements, and the iconic cultural identity of cowboys. These elements collectively forged a dynamic yet challenging economic landscape that set the stage for the future of ranching in the American West. Despite the legislative support and cultural romanticism, ranchers continually faced environmental and economic hurdles that required innovation and adaptation, reflecting the resilience and complexity of the industry.
2.1 Advancements in Ranching Technology: Mechanization, Refrigeration, and Transportation
The evolution of ranching in the American West during the 20th century was significantly influenced by technological advancements in various sectors. Mechanization, refrigeration, and transportation innovations collectively reshaped ranching practices, leading to increased productivity and efficiency. These technological progressions not only improved the logistics of ranching operations but also transformed the economic landscape and the general occupational practices within the industry.
Mechanization played a crucial role in the evolution of ranching by reducing the labor intensity involved in livestock care and other ranching activities. The mechanization of dairy cattle rearing in the Soviet Union during the first half of the 20th century serves as a pertinent illustration of these developments. Researchers Vtoryi and Vtoryi (2024) highlighted that the consolidation of farms, despite being a slow process initially, laid the foundation for mechanized livestock production. By the late 1920s and early 1930s, numerous machines, such as those designed by the All-Union Institute of Mechanization (VIM), significantly eased the labor burdens of livestock farmers (Vtoryi & Vtoryi, 2024). This narrative mirrored broader trends in the American West, where the introduction of machinery like tractors, automated feeding systems, and milking machines revolutionized the industry. These technological innovations allowed ranchers to manage larger herds more efficiently while minimizing physical labor—changes that were instrumental in transitioning from traditional, labor-intensive methods to modern, mechanized ranching.
Refrigeration technology was another transformative innovation that radically altered the ranching landscape in the American West. The advent of refrigerated transport in the late 19th and early 20th centuries extended the shelf life of meat products, facilitating the growth of the meatpacking industry. According to Ashwni and Sherwani (2023), the performance of organic Rankine cycle (ORC) integrated vapor compression refrigeration systems is notably enhanced by using zeotropic mixtures like R245fa/butane. These improvements underscore the progress in refrigeration technology, which historically enabled ranchers to transport meat over long distances without spoilage, thus opening new markets and expanding economic opportunities (Ashwni & Sherwani, 2023). This development was crucial for the ranching industry, which heavily relied on the extended reach facilitated by efficient refrigeration for economic viability.
Transportation advancements also played a pivotal role in reshaping ranching practices in the American West. The expansion of the railroad network in the late 19th century dramatically enhanced the logistical capabilities of ranchers, enabling them to transport cattle to distant markets quickly and efficiently. This progress continued into the 20th century with emerging technologies such as highway systems and, more recently, innovations in hyperloop technology. Buttlar and Haslag (2022) demonstrated that transportation innovations like the hyperloop could generate substantial economic impacts by lowering transport costs, reducing travel times, and providing environmental benefits through decreased greenhouse gas emissions (Buttlar & Haslag, 2022). Though hyperloop technology is still in its developmental stages, the historical context of transportation advancements emphasizes the importance of efficient transport systems in the ranching industry.
Federal policies and regulations, such as the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, further influenced the transportation sector’s evolution and its impact on ranching. The act regulated railroad rates and practices, ensuring fair tariffs and reducing monopolistic exploitation by railroad companies. This legislative intervention facilitated more equitable and predictable transportation costs for ranchers, enhancing their ability to plan and manage logistics effectively. This policy backdrop provided a stable environment for further transportation innovations and contributed to the broader efficiency gains in the ranching industry.
Together, the advancements in mechanization, refrigeration, and transportation substantively enhanced the operational capabilities and economic efficiency of the ranching industry in the American West. These innovations allowed ranchers to scale their operations, reduce labor costs, and access broader markets, thus supporting the industry’s sustained growth and evolution throughout the 20th century and beyond. By understanding these technological impacts, one gains a comprehensive appreciation of how modern ranching has been shaped by historical innovations, setting the stage for future technological integrations and advancements.
2.2 The Impact of Federal Policies and Environmental Regulations: Grazing Rights, Land Use, and Conservation
The evolution of ranching in the American West has been significantly shaped by federal policies and environmental regulations, which have, in turn, affected grazing rights, land use, and conservation practices. Federal policies, particularly those introduced in the 20th century, have profoundly influenced how land is utilized and conserved. One of the pivotal pieces of legislation in this context is the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934. This act aimed to halt overgrazing and soil deterioration on public lands by establishing grazing districts and permitting systems regulated by the federal government. It marked a significant shift in land use policy, transitioning from an era of open, unfenced ranges to more regulated land management practices (Taylor Grazing Act of 1934).
This regulatory approach fundamentally altered the landscape of American ranching, introducing a structured system that aimed to balance economic interests with environmental stewardship. The establishment of grazing districts and the implementation of permits introduced a framework for sustainable land use, helping to prevent the degradation of rangelands which had been a major issue due to the previously unrestricted grazing practices.
Federal incentives have also played a crucial role in shaping ranching practices. For instance, the Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP) has been influential in encouraging ranchers to adopt more sustainable practices by providing financial incentives for conservation activities. Manley and Mathias (2017) conducted a comprehensive study on the Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program’s river buffer subprogram, noting that counties with higher levels of cattle production tend to receive greater initial incentives. This indicates a tailored approach to policy implementation, where incentives are strategically allocated to maximize their impact on conservation outcomes. The study found that enrollments in CREP are more responsive per dollar of incentive offered in counties with substantial cattle ranching activities, implying that targeted incentives are effective in encouraging ranchers to embrace conservation measures (Manley & Mathias, 2017).
The collective efforts of ranching communities to conserve rangelands demonstrate another dimension of how federal policies intersect with local initiatives. Bennett et al. (2020) describe the evolution of rangeland trusts, community-based conservation organizations that work in partnership with state livestock associations. These trusts have conserved over 2.7 million acres through conservation easements, striking a balance between agricultural production and conservation needs. The formation of these trusts represents a form of multilevel governance that facilitates the implementation of conservation policies while addressing the unique needs and practices of ranching communities. The coalition of rangeland trusts that emerged in the early 2000s showcases how industry structures can be harnessed to scale conservation initiatives, ensuring that policies are grounded in the practical realities of ranching (Bennett et al., 2020).
Ranchers in the American West have thus navigated a complex landscape of policies and incentives, adapting their practices to align with evolving regulatory environments. Moreover, examples from international contexts provide valuable insights into sustainable ranching practices. Chiaravalloti et al. (2023) examine cattle ranching in the Brazilian Pantanal, highlighting how sustainable practices can be maintained through well-defined property boundaries, low-intensity cattle ranching, and co-management of resources. Despite facing similar challenges of global change, infrastructure development, and deforestation, the Pantanal’s approach underscores the importance of community-driven initiatives and robust policy frameworks. Lessons from the Pantanal emphasize the need for better biodiversity monitoring, conflict resolution mechanisms, and the recognition of local sustainability efforts by government and international entities (Chiaravalloti et al., 2023).
In conclusion, the interplay between federal policies, financial incentives, and community-based conservation initiatives has been instrumental in shaping the evolution of ranching in the American West. Regulations such as the Taylor Grazing Act established a basis for sustainable land use, while programs like CREP incentivized conservation efforts. The emergence of rangeland trusts exemplifies how local organizations can effectively collaborate with federal policies to achieve conservation goals, balancing economic and environmental interests. This multi-faceted approach highlights the resilience and adaptability of ranchers in navigating regulatory landscapes, contributing to the sustainability of ranching practices in the face of ongoing challenges.
3.1 Sustainable and Organic Ranching Practices: Grass-Fed Beef, Regenerative Agriculture, and Ethical Standards
In recent years, sustainable and organic ranching practices have significantly gained traction in the American West, driven by an increasing consumer demand for ethical and environmentally-friendly products. Among these practices, grass-fed beef, regenerative agriculture, and evolving ethical standards are at the forefront of this transformation. These methods are pivotal in mitigating environmental impacts, enhancing animal welfare, and meeting the heightened expectations of conscientious consumers.
Grass-fed beef is one of the hallmark practices of contemporary sustainable ranching. Unlike conventional grain-fed beef, grass-fed beef involves cattle grazing on natural pastures, which not only aligns with their physiological needs but also offers substantial environmental benefits. According to Thomas et al. (2023), extensive livestock production, such as grass-fed beef in Australia, manages a significant portion of terrestrial surfaces, thereby impacting natural vegetation, soils, biodiversity, and greenhouse gas emissions. The integration of cattle with natural grasslands allows for improved soil health, increased biodiversity, and enhanced carbon sequestration capabilities. Standardizing and coordinating environmental certification and assurance schemes are crucial for validating claims and maintaining transparency within the industry (Thomas et al., 2023).
From a consumer perspective, the demand for grass-fed beef is shaped by growing awareness and concern regarding food sources. O’Brien et al. (2023) observed that consumers in the United States often rely on mass and social media for information about beef production. This reliance creates a mixture of accurate and misleading information, which significantly influences their purchasing decisions. Their study demonstrated that accurate, science-based information about grass-fed beef positively shifted consumer perceptions regarding its environmental impact, cost, quality, and nutritional benefits. This underscores the need for a concerted effort by the beef industry to bridge the gap between producers and consumers, facilitating informed decision-making and fostering trust (O’Brien et al., 2023).
In addition to grass-fed beef, regenerative agriculture represents a pivotal aspect of sustainable ranching. This approach aims to restore and enhance ecosystem health through practices that promote soil fertility, biodiversity, and resilience to climate change. Koman et al. (2021) elaborate on the core principles of regenerative agriculture, including no-till farming, cover cropping, crop diversity, livestock integration, and the reduction of synthetic inputs. These practices collectively contribute to greater agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability in the long run. However, the shift towards regenerative agriculture faces significant challenges, primarily due to the entrenched nature of conventional agricultural policies that often favor industrial-scale monocropping and chemical inputs (Koman et al., 2021).
The ethical dimension of modern ranching extends beyond environmental and consumer concerns. It encompasses animal welfare and the broader societal implications of ranching practices. Rachel Carson’s seminal work, “Silent Spring,” though not directly focused on ranching, highlighted the ethical responsibilities humans hold towards the environment and living beings. Carson’s advocacy for ecological integrity and the responsible use of natural resources remains deeply pertinent as ranchers adopt more conscientious practices. Ethical standards in ranching now emphasize humane treatment of livestock, reduced use of growth hormones and antibiotics, and ensuring that all aspects of production contribute positively to both human health and ecological systems.
In conclusion, the evolution of ranching in the American West towards sustainable and organic practices is a multi-faceted endeavor that addresses environmental integrity, consumer transparency, and ethical accountability. Grass-fed beef and regenerative agriculture are transformative practices that promise lasting benefits for ecosystems and communities. To actualize these benefits, there must be a convergence of accurate information dissemination, supportive policies, and an unwavering commitment to ethical standards that honor both the land and its inhabitants. This holistic approach ensures that ranching can continue to be a viable and responsible industry in the dynamic landscape of the American West.
3.2 The Role of Ranching in Modern American Society and Economy: Cultural Identity, Economic Contributions, and Urbanization Challenges
Ranching in the modern American West serves as a crucial touchstone for cultural identity while also contributing significantly to the economy and grappling with the challenges posed by urbanization. These aspects are deeply interconnected, as the cultural legacy of the American cowboy and open-range lifestyle continues to embody the spirit of independence and rugged individualism. However, the evolving economic landscape and increasing urban encroachment necessitate a nuanced understanding of how contemporary ranching practices adapt and thrive.
Culturally, ranching remains a vibrant symbol of American heritage. From the iconic imagery of cowboys driving cattle across vast open spaces to the annual rodeo events that draw spectators from across the country, ranching culture continues to be a point of pride and identity. This cultural resonance is not merely nostalgic but is actively lived through traditions such as cattle branding, horseback riding, and even the music and storytelling that celebrate ranch life. Yet, as urbanization pressures mount, the cultural landscape of ranching is threatened. Expanding cities and suburban developments encroach on traditional ranch lands, creating a tension between preserving cultural heritage and accommodating modern growth (Auwalu & Bello, 2023).
Economically, ranching is a significant contributor to both local and national economies. Ranching enterprises range from small family-owned operations to large commercial ranches. This sector not only provides jobs but also supports ancillary industries such as feed production, veterinary services, and equipment manufacturing. A key economic development in recent years is the diversification of ranching activities. As Denner et al. (2024) point out, ranching now encompasses a variety of business models beyond traditional cattle farming, including ecotourism, trophy hunting, and mixed wildlife-agriculture operations. These diversified models not only enhance the economic viability of ranches but also contribute to conservation efforts and sustainable resource use. For instance, ecotourism-oriented ranches tend to employ more people, including women, and generate higher skilled employment compared to conventional agriculture, although profitability can vary widely.
Urbanization presents formidable challenges to the sustainability and economic health of ranching. The encroachment of urban and suburban areas into traditionally rural lands reduces available grazing space and increases land prices, making it difficult for ranchers to expand or even maintain their operations. Moreover, urbanization brings about infrastructural strain, traffic congestion, and socio-economic disparities, as seen in case studies like Lagos City (Auwalu & Bello, 2023). Although the context is different, the broader lessons about the impacts of urbanization are applicable. Ranchers in the American West also face related issues such as housing shortages for seasonal labor and intense competition for water resources, crucial for both grazing and crop production.
Addressing these challenges requires policy interventions that balance urban growth with the preservation of agricultural lands. Federal and local governments must adopt integrated land-use planning and offer economic incentives for sustainable ranching practices. Rain-index insurance is one policy tool designed to aid ranchers in managing financial risks associated with droughts, an increasingly frequent issue due to climate change. However, research by Shrum and Travis (2022) indicates that while such insurance programs can mitigate some risks, they do not significantly impact herd sizes or drought adaptation investments, suggesting that more comprehensive strategies are needed. These might include advanced drought-resistant forage crops, water conservation technologies, and adaptive management plans that emphasize resilience in the face of climate uncertainty.
In sum, ranching in the modern American West is at a crossroads, where cultural identity, economic contributions, and urbanization challenges intersect. The preservation of ranching heritage requires not only a celebration of its cultural significance but also proactive economic and policy strategies to ensure its viability amidst growing urban pressures. As ranching practices evolve, they must integrate innovative business models, embrace technological advancements, and advocate for sustainable land-use policies to thrive in an increasingly urbanized world.
Summary:
This essay provides a comprehensive analysis of the evolution of ranching in the American West from the late 19th century to the present, focusing on various influences that shaped the industry over time. It begins by exploring the foundational aspects of ranching initiated by Spanish colonizers, who introduced cattle ranching techniques and the vaquero culture that became integral to the cowboy identity. This early phase set the stage for ranching’s evolution, characterized by open-range practices and significant economic investments from figures like David Rankin, who navigated the complex social and legal landscape of land use during the period.
The discussion unfolds to examine the economic and social transformations in the late 19th century, spurred by federal initiatives like the Homestead Act, which facilitated widespread access to land for ranchers. This era also witnessed the emergence of the cowboy as a cultural icon, embodying the spirit of rugged individualism. Simultaneously, challenges arose due to overgrazing and environmental degradation, prompting a transition to more controlled land use marked by the implementation of federal policies such as the Taylor Grazing Act. These regulations aimed to ensure sustainable practices while balancing economic interests with environmental stewardship, exemplified by initiatives like the Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program.
The essay progresses to explore technological advancements throughout the 20th century, focusing on mechanization, refrigeration, and transportation innovations that significantly enhanced ranching efficiency and productivity. The expansion of these technological capabilities transformed ranching from a labor-intensive endeavor into a more streamlined industry capable of supplying growing market demands. Additionally, the emergence of sustainable and organic practices highlights the industry’s response to evolving consumer expectations for ethical and environmentally friendly products. Ranching is increasingly characterized by grass-fed beef production, regenerative agriculture, and a commitment to ethical standards.
In conclusion, the essay underscores that ranching in the modern American West serves not only as an economic engine but also as a vital cultural identity amid urbanization challenges. It urges the integration of innovative practices and policy interventions that support sustainable ranching while preserving cultural heritage. The complex interplay of historical influences, technological advancements, and contemporary policies showcases the dynamic nature of ranching, reflecting its ability to adapt and thrive in an ever-changing landscape, solidifying its relevance and importance in American society today.
References:
Adams, S.. (2021). The Late-19th-Century Economy. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.893
Ashwni, & Sherwani, A. F.. (2023). Assessment of the Impact of using Zeotropic Mixture on the Thermodynamic Performance of Organic Rankine Cycle Integrated Vapor Compression Refrigeration System. Evergreen. https://doi.org/10.5109/6793668
Auwalu, F. K., & Bello, M.. (2023). Exploring the Contemporary Challenges of Urbanization and the Role of Sustainable Urban Development: A Study of Lagos City, Nigeria. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2023.v7n1-12
Bennett, D. E., Knapp, C., Knight, R. L., & Glenn, E.. (2020). The evolution of the rangeland trusts network as a catalyst for community‐based conservation in the American West. Conservation Science and Practice, 3. https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.257
Boza, A., & Solórzano Fonseca, J. C.. (2019). Indigenous Trade in Caribbean Central America, 1700s–1800s. The [oxford] Handbook of Borderlands of the Iberian World, 237–265. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199341771.013.29
Buttlar, W., & Haslag, J. H.. (2022). On the Economic Impacts of Transportation Innovations: A Comprehensive Application to Quantifying the Impacts of an Hyperloop Technology. The Economics and Finance Letters. https://doi.org/10.18488/29.v9i1.3049
Chiaravalloti, R. M., Tomas, W. M., Akre, T., Morato, R. G., Camilo, A. R., Giordano, A. J., & Leimgruber, P.. (2023). Achieving conservation through cattle ranching: The case of the Brazilian Pantanal. Conservation Science and Practice. https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.13006
Combs, H. J.. (2023). The Early Open-Range Cattle Ranching Industry in Nebraska: America’s Greatest Farmer Plays a Role. Great Plains Quarterly, 43, 43–63. https://doi.org/10.1353/gpq.2023.a897848
Danel, A. B.. (2021). Ideas about Trans-Pacific Origins and Voyages in Early Spanish Chronicles from the Americas. Journal of Iberian and Latin American Research, 27, 69–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/13260219.2021.1954368
Denner, C., Clements, H. S., Child, M. F., & de Vos, A.. (2024). The diverse socioeconomic contributions of wildlife ranching. Conservation Science and Practice. https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.13166
Gregg, S. M.. (2019). Imagining Opportunity: The 1909 Enlarged Homestead Act and the Promise of the Public Domain. Western Historical Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1093/WHQ/WHZ044
Homestead Act of 1862, ch. 75, 12 Stat. 392.
Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, ch. 104, 24 Stat. 379.
Koman, E., Laurilliard, E., Moore, A., & Ruiz-Uribe, N. E.. (2021). Restoration Through Regeneration: a Scientific and Political Lens into Regenerative Agriculture in the United States. Journal of Science Policy & Governance. https://doi.org/10.38126/jspg190106
Loranger, D., & Divita, L.. (2023). Texas Cowboy Boots: America’s Material Culture Melting Pot. The Journal of American Culture, 46(1), 14–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/jacc.13443
Manley, J., & Mathias, J.. (2017). CREP: Cattle Receiving Enhanced Pastures? Investigating Landowner Response to Federal Incentives. Land Economics, 93, 59–73. https://doi.org/10.3368/le.93.1.59
O’Brien, K. D., Baker, C. N., Bush, S. A., & Wolf, K. J.. (2023). The Meat of the Matter: The Effect of Science-based Information on Consumer Perception of Grass-fed Beef. Journal of Applied Communications. https://doi.org/10.4148/1051-0834.2496
Shrum, T. R., & Travis, W. R.. (2022). Experiments in ranching: Rain‐index insurance and investment in production and drought risk management. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 44(3), 1513–1533. https://doi.org/10.1002/aepp.13304
Silent Spring by Rachel Carson.
Taylor Grazing Act of 1934, ch. 865, 48 Stat. 1269.
Thomas, D. T., Mata, G., Toovey, A. F., Hunt, P. W., Wijffels, G., Pirzl, R., … Ridoutt, B. G.. (2023). Climate and Biodiversity Credentials for Australian Grass-Fed Beef: A Review of Standards, Certification and Assurance Schemes. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813935
Vtoryi, V., & Vtoryi, S.. (2024). Development of mechanization of dairy cattle rearing in Russia and the Soviet Union in the first half of the twentieth century. Agricultural Science Euro-north-east. https://doi.org/10.30766/2072-9081.2024.25.2.301-310
Photo by Aaron Burden on Unsplash